Abbreviation, Capitalization, and Other Information
aboveboard
One word, no hyphen.
Abbreviations
Use abbreviations sparingly, unless you are certain the reader knows what they stand for.
Some words, however, are almost always abbreviated. They include a.m., p.m., B.C., A.D., Mr., Mrs., Ms., and Dr. When they follow a person’s name, Jr. and Sr. are also abbreviated.
Use an ampersand (&) in place of and and abbreviate the words Brothers (Bros.), Company (Co.), Corporation (Corp.), and Incorporated (Inc.) when they are part of a company’s formal name. When not used as part of a name, spell out these words.
Do not abbreviate months, days of the week, or the words street, avenue, road, and boulevard. Do not abbreviate the names of states except in postal addresses.
Acronyms
Like abbreviations, acronyms should be used sparingly, unless you are certain the reader knows what they stand for. Write out a word the first time you use it and note its acronym in parentheses. From then on, you may use the acronym alone.
Ad-lib
Hyphenated in all of its forms: adjective, noun, and verb.
a.k.a. (also known as)
Punctuate with periods; use lowercase.
Ages
Use numerals when indicating age, even if the age is under ten. This is an exception to the rule about when to use numerals and words on Page 70.
Our fleet of airplanes is 7 years old.
Hyphenate ages when they are used as adjectives or replacements for nouns; otherwise, no hyphen is necessary.
I have a 6-year-old daughter.
My daughter is 6 years old. This toy is designed for 6-year-olds.
Do not use an apostrophe in the following constructions: 20s, 30s, 40s, etc.
Most of the middle managers are in their 30s.
a.m., p.m.
Lowercase with periods. Note that 6 p.m. in the evening is redundant. The use of a.m. or p.m. already indicates time of day.
Ampersand (&)
Do not use in place of and unless the ampersand is part of an organization’s formal name.
And/or
Confusing to the reader; avoid. Also avoid either/or, he/she, and similar expressions with slashes.
Apostrophes
Do not use apostrophes when writing the plural of an abbreviation. Do not use apostrophes in the following constructions: 1870s, 1990s; 20s, 30s, 40s, etc.
Most of the middle managers are in their 30s.
See also apostrophe in Chapter 2.
Board
Do not capitalize unless the word is part of an organization’s full, official name.
I’ll have to discuss your proposal with the board before making a decision.
We’re presenting our proposal to the Cincinnati Board of Trade tomorrow.
Board of directors, board of trustees
Do not capitalize in generic uses. Capitalize in internal correspondence if that is the company’s custom. See also titles.
Brothers
Abbreviate when part of formal company name.
Do you know where Warner Bros. Is based?
Building
Write out; do not abbreviate as bldg.
Bullets
There is no one correct way to punctuate bulleted items. If a bulleted item is a complete sentence, capitalize the first letter and end with the appropriate end punctuation (period, question mark). If the item is not a complete sentence, you may end with a period, comma, semicolon, or nothing at all – but be consistent. It’s still a good idea to capitalize the first word in each bullet.
Bureau
Capitalize only when part of an organization’s formal name.
Cents
Use numerals and spell out the word cents (8 cents, 60 cents). This is an exception to the rule about when to use words and when to use numerals on Page 70.
Century
Hyphenate when used with another word to form an adjective. Do not hyphenate when used as a noun.
The Internet is a 20th-century phenomenon.
People started using the Internet in the 20th century.
Note that the century designation does not correspond with a century’s years: The 20th century began in 1900, not 2000.
Chairman, chairwoman, chairperson
Capitalize only as a formal title that appears before a person’s name: company Chairman Bill Gates. Do not capitalize when referring to a less formal, temporary position: chairperson of the improvement committee Joe Smith.
Chapter numbers
Can be written as words or numerals. (Chapter 3 and Chapter Three are both correct.)
city
Capitalize only when part of an official name or nickname; otherwise, lowercase: New York City; the city of Los Angeles; Chicago, the Windy City.
Committee
Committee is a singular noun that takes a singular verb.
Company
If a business ends its proper name with Company or Companies, abbreviate as Co. or Cos. (Possessive: Co.’s and Cos.’) If either word is used alone, do not abbreviate.
Company names
See Standard & Poor’s Register of Corporations or consult the company itself for a company’s exact name. Put a comma before Inc. or Ltd. And a comma after Inc. or Ltd. If they do not end the sentence.
Corporation
Abbreviate as Corp. when used at the end of an organization’s formal name. Do not abbreviate when used alone.
Data
Data is technically the plural form of the word datum. However, it has become acceptable to use data with a singular verb in all but the most formal contexts.
Formal: The data show we are heading in the right direction.
Informal: The data shows we are heading in the right direction.
Dates
Punctuate dates as follows: September 4, 1973. When a complete date appears in the middle of a sentence, it is followed by a comma. When only a month and year appear, no comma is necessary.
The author was born on September 4, 1973, in
Washington, D.C.
September 1973 was hot and humid in Washington, D.C.
International correspondence: Many countries other than the United States express dates as follows: 4 September 1973, and 4/9/73. Keep this in mind when using numerical forms for dates (9/4/73 in the United States), so the month and day are not confused.
Daylong
One word, no hyphen. Same holds true for weeklong, monthlong, and yearlong.
Decade
Write as follows: 1990s, ’90s, mid-1990s. Use apostrophe when writing ’90s because numbers have been omitted (note direction of apostrophe: ’ and not ‘). Do not use apostrophe when writing 1990s because no numbers have been omitted. See apostrophe Page 32.
Depression
Capitalize only when referring to the Great Depression.
Director
Capitalize only as a formal title that appears before a person’s name: FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover.
Distances
Follow the rules for numbers, Page 70. Write out one through ten; use numerals for numbers over ten.
The plant is five miles away.
The satellite office is 12 miles south of here.
Dollars
Use numerals when expressing dollar amounts ($2, $3,000). For amounts of $1 million or more, use numerals up to two decimals ($3.5 million). Do not hyphenate numerals with the words million, billion, etc. ($540 million deficit, not $540-million deficit).
Each
Use with a singular verb.
Each of the automobiles was a different color.
Each of you is exceptionally qualified.
Each and every
Redundant. Use each or every.
Either … or, neither … nor
Either should be used with or; neither should be used with nor. The verb should agree with the subject that is closer to it.
Either Jack or Jill is going to the meeting
Neither the CEO nor the trustees are going to the meeting.
Neither the trustees nor the CEO is going to the meeting.
Email vs. e-mail
Experts disagree on whether to use a hyphen. Either follow company convention or choose one way and be consistent in all uses. Special note for international correspondence: In both French and German, email, without the hyphen, means enamel or glaze.
Fax
Fax is an acceptable abbreviation of the word facsimile in most contexts.
Firm
Use firm when referring to a business partnership. Do not use when referring to an incorporated business; use corporation or company instead.
First, second, third
Use first, second, third, etc., instead of firstly, secondly, thirdly, etc.
first quarter vs. first-quarter
Do not hyphenate when used as a noun. (The company did well during the first quarter.) Hyphenate when used as an adjective. (The first-quarter results were excellent.)
fractions
Spell out and hyphenate amounts less than 1 (four- fifths). Express as numerals when the amount is more than 1 (6 ½ inches). Use numerals for amounts larger than one (and convert to decimals when possible, but try to avoid mixing fractions and decimals in the same document).
Full-
Hyphenate when used as an adjective (full-scale initiative, full-time employee).
Fund-raising vs. fund raising
Hyphenate when used as an adjective; do not hyphenate when used as a noun.
The fund-raising event is this evening at 8.
Skillful fund raising is key to an organization’s success.
Gender
Make every effort to ensure your language is gender-neutral, particularly when referring to professions. Here are some traditional names of occupations that are now considered sexist and their suggested replacements.
See also his, her.
Girl
Use until 18th birthday; then use woman or young woman.
Half
Does not need to be used with the word of. Half the group and half of the group are both correct.
Headquarters
Singular noun that takes a singular verb. The company’s headquarters is in Columbus, Ohio.
Health care vs. healthcare
Follow company convention or pick one and be consistent in all uses.
Height, width
Use numerals and spell out words such as yards, feet, and inches. Hyphenate only when used as adjectives before nouns.
He is a 6-foot-7-inch basketball player.
He is 6 feet 7 inches tall.
His, her
Do not use he, him, or his to represent both sexes. She or he, him or her, and his or her is acceptable but cumbersome.
There are several ways to avoid biased language without sounding awkward, including making the pronoun plural, using the pronoun you, using the pronoun we, using an article (a, an, the), using passive voice, and taking the pronoun out altogether.
Avoid: A salesperson must know his client well.
Avoid: A salesperson must know his or her client well.
Better: As a salesperson, you must know your client well.
Better: Salespeople must know their clients well.
Better: A salesperson must know the client well.
Better: As salespeople, we must know our clients well.
Better: Clients must be well known by their salespeople.
Another option is to alternate the use of his and her throughout a document, using the masculine pronoun in one instance and the feminine pronoun in the next.
Incorporated
Abbreviate and capitalize as Inc. when part of a formal company name. Set off by commas: Widget Makers, Inc.
IOU, IOUs
Acceptable acronym in all instances. Do not use an apostrophe when forming the plural.
Italics
Italicize names of books, newspapers, magazines, periodicals, movies, and TV shows. Use quotation marks for titles of chapters, articles, reports, poems, songs, and musical works. Exception: The titles of long musical works and poems (e.g., Paradise Lost) are italicized.
Italics may also be used to show emphasis. Use them sparingly for this purpose, however.
Italicize foreign words or phrases that have not become fully accepted as part of the English language. (Her joie de vivre motivated the entire committee. His quid pro quo was unacceptable.) Some foreign words have become so ingrained in the English language that they no longer need to be italicized (etc., bon voyage).
Jargon
Jargon is vocabulary that is specific to an industry or group of people. Avoid.
Junior, senior
Abbreviate as Jr. and Sr. when following a person’s name. Set off by a comma: John J. Beatty, Jr.
languages
Capitalize the names of languages: French, Arabic, Japanese.
Long-distance vs. long distance
Hyphenate when used as an adjective; do not hyphenate when used as a noun. Same rule applies to long-term vs. long term.
His long-distance bill was high this month.
They ran the long distance without stopping.
Long-term care is expensive.
We’re in the stock market for the long term.
Long time vs. longtime Long time is a noun; longtime is an adjective.
We haven’t seen our friends in a long time.
Our longtime friends will visit us next weekend.
Magazine names
Capitalize and place in italics. Lowercase the word magazine unless it is part of the publication’s official title.
Marketplace
One word, no hyphen.
Master of science, master of arts
May be abbreviated as M.S. and M.A. Master’s or master’s degree in x also acceptable.
Master of business administration
Commonly abbreviated as M.B.A or MBA. Note: It is becoming more acceptable to eliminate the periods in degrees; it certainly looks less cluttered in a biography, for instance, when the person has several degrees.
Media
When used to describe the press, media is a plural noun and takes a plural verb. (The media are bombarding the candidate with questions.) Its misuse as a singular noun, however (usually by members of the media), is now so common that it is increasingly rare to hear the word used correctly.
Correct (but now rare): The media are bombarding the candidate with questions.
Incorrect (but more common): The media is bombarding the candidate with questions.
Memorandum, memorandums
Add s to form plural.
Middle-class vs. middle class
Hyphenate when used as an adjective; do not hyphenate when used as a noun.
She grew up in a middle-class neighborhood.
The tax cut will greatly benefit the middle class.
Middle initials
In general, use a person’s middle initial(s). Middle initials may be dropped if a person doesn’t use one or is commonly known without one.
Midnight, noon
Do not use 12 in front of them; redundant.
mix-up vs. mix up
Hyphenate when used as a noun; do not hyphenate when used as a verb.
The mix-up made him miss his flight.
We mix up the name tags as part of the game.
Mock-up
Always hyphenated; used as a noun only.
Months
Capitalize and spell out. Exception: Months may be abbreviated when used in lists, tables, or invoices.
Mr., Mrs., Ms.
Mr. refers to a man; Mrs. Refers to a married woman; and Ms. Refers to either a married or a single woman. Use Ms. When you are unsure of a woman’s marital status. The plural forms of Mr. and Mrs. Are Messrs. And Mmes. There is no plural form of Ms.
Nationwide
One word. Same holds true for statewide and citywide, as well as companywide and officewide.
Newspaper names
Capitalize and place in italics. Capitalize and italicize the only if it is part of the formal title.
No.
Use as an abbreviation with a numeral to indicate rank: No. 2 candidate. Do not use in street addresses (Use # instead).
Noon, midnight
Do not use 12 in front of them; redundant.
North, south, east, west
Capitalize only when designating specific regions. (The North was more industrialized than the South during the Civil War.) Do not capitalize when indicating direction. (Drive west until you reach the coast.)
numbers
Spell out numbers ten and under; use numerals for numbers over ten.
We took ten baskets to the market.
He will turn 11 tomorrow.
Exception: Write out numbers that begin sentences, even if they are over ten. Use numerals in combination with the word percent and when referring to round numbers in the millions, billions, trillions, etc.
Twenty-one days was plenty of time to get the presentation together.
Only about 10 percent of the presentation is completed.
Exception: Use numerals when referring to addresses, dates, fractions, page numbers, and time of day (except when the word o’clock is used).
The recipe calls for 1 1/3 cup of molasses.
I woke up at 7 a.m.
Exception: Use numerals when expressing measurements:
My office is 8 feet by 14 feet.
If you use more than one number in the same sentence, be consistent about either spelling the numbers out or using numerals.
Avoid: Because we were so lax, we now have six days to prepare the presentation instead of 21.
Better: Because we were so lax, we now have 6 days to prepare the presentation instead of 21.
Better: Because we were so lax, we now have six days to prepare the presentation instead of twenty-one.
OK, Oks, OK’d, OK’ing
Not okay. Avoid all forms of OK in formal documents.
Online
One word, no hyphen.
page numbers
Use numerals and capitalize the word page (Page 3, Page 24).
Part-time vs. part time
Hyphenate when used as an adjective. Do not hyphenate when used as an adverb.
I’m thinking of getting a part-time job.
When I worked part time, I had a bit more income.
People
Possessive form is people’s.
per
Use per to mean for each, through, or by means of. Do not use per to mean according to. The expression as per is also incorrect.
Correct: He charges me $1.50 per pound.
Incorrect: As per our conversation, I’ve contacted the distributor.
Percent
Spell out the word percent in combination with numerals (3 percent, 17 percent). Exception: The % symbol may be used in lists, tables, and invoices.
phenomenon, phenomena
Phenomenon is the singular form; phenomena is the plural.
Spontaneous combustion is an unusual phenomenon.
The scientist told us about some of the phenomena he had seen over the years.
Pigeonhole
One word, no hyphen.
Pipeline
One word, no hyphen.
Policy-maker, policy-making
Hyphenated when used as both noun and adjective.
Prefixes
Here are some general guidelines for punctuating prefixes:
Use a hyphen if the word that follows the prefix is capitalized (anti-American, pro-Canadian).
Use a hyphen if the prefix ends in a vowel and the word that follows it begins with the same vowel (multi-industry).
Use hyphen to join double prefixes (sub-subcontractor). Do not hyphenate a prefix when the prefix ends in a vowel and the word that follows it begins with a consonant (multimillionaire).
Prefixes rarely follow fixed rules, however, so it’s best to consult a dictionary. Punctuation guidelines for some of the quirkier prefixes follow:
Profit-sharing
Hyphenate as both a noun and an adjective.
Ratios
Use numerals and hyphens when expressing ratios (a ratio of 3-to-2). Omit the word to when numerals precede the word ratio (a 3-2 ratio).
Seasons
Lowercase season names unless they are part of an official name.
I can’t wait for summer.
I can’t wait for the Save for Summer sale to begin.
Software titles
Capitalize but don’t put in quotation marks (Microsoft Word). Use quotation marks for computer games, however (“Primal Rage”).
Speeches
Capitalize and put in quotation marks when using a speech’s formal title.
Spokesman, spokeswoman, spokesperson
All are acceptable.
State
Do not capitalize the word state when writing the state of x. Capitalize when part of a state’s official name or nickname: the state of New York, New York State, the Show- me State.
State names
Capitalize and spell out state names when they occur within a sentence. Use postal service abbreviations (listed below, in parentheses) only when a full address, including zip code, is used.
When a place is identified by city and state, place commas between the city and state and after the state:
He was born in Wichita, Kansas, and stayed there with his family all his life.
Steppingstone
One word, no hyphen.
Street
Abbreviate as St. only when used in a postal address.
I live on Pollard Street.
Send the package to 535 Pollard St., Arlington, VA, 22203.
Suffixes
Like prefixes, suffixes are quirky, and it’s best to check the dictionary. Here are punctuation guidelines for some of the most commonly used suffixes:
