Wielding his red editing pen, my former boss, President Bill Clinton, used to mutter, “Words, words, words,” as he slashed away unnecessary fluff from the speeches we’d given to him. Clinton wanted to speak to Americans, not over them, and he believed quite strongly that filling his text with unnecessary rhetoric only alienated the audience. Clinton was spot on. One of my colleagues used to say he was more Hemingway than Faulkner. Clinton wanted workers on the factory floor to understand him as well as the academics at Harvard and the members of Congress in Washington.
To achieve that goal meant never sacrificing the content or quality of an argument, but just framing it in a way that would keep our audience engaged, no matter what their level in life. It also meant keeping the President’s speeches organized, so that he offered a coherent argument, not a rambling lecture that would require a decoder ring to figure out.
It’s the same as talking to a doctor who can describe your condition in layman’s terms, versus the one who’s had his head in the books for too long. There’s a reason, in the end, Clinton is often described as one of the greatest communicators of the last century – a title shared with Ronald Reagan and Franklin D. Roosevelt. While Woodrow Wilson delivered powerful speeches, and his texts are worthy of bound volumes, no one ever accused him of being too cozy with the lower classes.
Speaking to people, not over them, isn’t easy. In fact, I’d argue that boiling down ideas into “Clinton-speak” is even harder than using the high-brow “industry-speak.” But it’s a skill that’s essential to great communication, no matter what your field of expertise. And it’s an approach that’s as applicable to a memorandum from the CEO to shareholders as it is to a speech at a board of directors meeting.
Think about it: How many meetings have you sat through where the speaker loses you less than five minutes into the discussion? Maybe his talk is filled with language so technical that you need a Ph.D. to figure it out. Or it’s so disorganized that it looks like the floor of your college dorm room. Perhaps he doesn’t even try to connect with his audience – no jokes, no stories, just numbers. Or maybe he leaves you wondering what in the world he wanted from you.
There’s simply no reason anything you hear or read should ever lose your attention or – even worse – intimidate you. The last thing any communicator should do, at any level, is marginalize his audience. The most important thing is to have your audience buy in to you and your message; the more comfortable they feel, the more they’ll be engaged with what you’re saying. You’ve received the highest compliment when someone in the audience leaves your discussion feeling as though you were talking directly to him.
This skill isn’t easy to acquire, but you can start on your way by following five simple steps:
Organize your message. Like a good lawyer, build your argument in a coherent manner; the more your audience can follow along, the more attention they’ll pay. There’s a simple saying in the speechwriting world: First tell your audience what you plan to tell them; then tell them; and then close by telling them what you just told them.
Make it easy to follow. Arrange your points in a way that encourages your audience to follow along. I usually organize my points numerically throughout the speech. (For example, “Today I’m going to discuss three reasons to buy this book. First, this book will help you … Second …”) Also, don’t fill your speech with two-dollar words you learned on the SAT. People shouldn’t have to carry a dictionary to follow you. That’s not to say, of course, that you shouldn’t use descriptive language to help get your point across.
Make your best points first and last. When you’re making your argument, put your best point first and your second best point last. You always want to come out of the gate strong and leave your audience with a good impression.
Encourage your audience to like you. If you can, start with a joke or a good story, even if it’s recounting something you heard on the Tonight Show. The more you give the impression you’re a regular person, the more people will like you, relax, and actually listen to what you’re saying.
Keep it short. Most television programs last only a half- hour because people just don’t have the patience to sit through anything longer. Your speech should never run longer than 30 minutes or, if possible, 20.
These steps are doable – and many of their tenets apply to other types of documents, as this Guide to Business Writing shows you clearly and concisely. You can even follow the steps without spending thousands of dollars on a speech coach. Eat your heart out, Woodrow Wilson.
Josh Gottheimer
Cambridge, Massachusetts
Before you begin writing, know what you want to say – and why you want to say it. Are you explaining a situation or a problem? Are you trying to convince the reader of something? Are you recommending a course of action? One way to ensure you know why you’re writing is to make an outline of your main points beforehand.
By always remembering your purpose in writing, you’ll keep yourself from wandering off track. You’ll also avoid confusing the reader. If you don’t understand what you’re trying to say, how can you expect the reader to?
Effective writing of all kinds is tailored to its audience. Who – and how many people – will be reading the document? How familiar are they with the subject matter? Make sure the answers to these questions fit with the tone and level of detail you include in your document.
Another key is knowing how long your reader or readers will have to read your memo, report, or email. This will help determine its length. One frequently used guideline is one double-spaced page per minute.
You also need to consider how much information to include to meet your readers’ needs. Put yourself in their shoes: What are they looking for? What questions might they ask?
A business report is not a murder mystery; your reader shouldn’t have to guess what the conclusion will be. Present the most important point(s) at the beginning of your document; then use the paragraphs and sections that follow to support your conclusion.
The same goes for paragraphs and sections within the document. At the beginning of each new paragraph or section, state the main point. Then present the explanation or supporting details, preferably in descending order of importance. This theory works for individual sentences, too: Placing the most important words at the beginning and end of a sentence heightens their emphasis.
The first key to being concise is eliminating unnecessary information. Stepping away from your document and coming back to it later can help you be more objective about what is and isn’t needed to convey your message.
The second key is eliminating unnecessary words. Qualifiers such as very, fairly, and quite rarely add meaning. In fact, because they’re so overused, they often have the opposite effect.
Many commonly used phrases include useless words. Some wordy phrases and their replacements are listed below:
|
Replace: |
With: |
|
along the lines of |
like |
|
a majority of |
most |
|
a majority of the time |
usually |
|
as a general rule |
generally |
|
as per |
as, according to |
|
as soon as |
when |
|
at your earliest convenience |
soon or by x date |
|
as you may or may not know |
as you may know |
|
at a later date |
later |
|
at all times |
always |
|
at this point in time |
now |
|
avail oneself of |
use |
|
by means of |
by |
|
can be in a position to |
can |
|
due to the fact that |
because |
|
during the time that |
while |
|
for the purpose of |
for |
|
free of charge |
free |
|
have a tendency to |
tend to |
|
inasmuch as |
because |
|
in accordance with |
according to |
|
in advance of |
before |
|
in all probability |
probably |
|
in connection with |
about |
|
in many instances |
often |
|
in order that, in order to |
to |
|
in reference to, in regard to |
about |
|
in spite of the fact that |
although |
|
in the amount of |
for |
|
in the event that |
if |
|
in the matter of |
about |
|
in the near future |
soon |
|
in this day and age |
nowadays, now |
|
in view of the fact that |
because |
|
make a recommendation that |
recommend |
|
of a confidential nature |
confidential |
|
on account of the fact that |
because |
|
on the grounds that |
because |
|
owing to the fact that |
because |
|
perform an analysis of |
analyze |
|
pertaining to |
about |
|
prior to |
before |
|
pursuant to |
since |
|
the question as to whether |
whether |
|
regarding the matter of |
about |
|
subsequent to |
after, since |
|
the writer, the undersigned |
I, me |
|
up to this writing |
until now |
Other phrases are redundant:
|
Replace: |
With: |
|
absolutely perfect |
perfect |
|
actual experience |
experience |
|
adding together |
adding |
|
advance planning |
planning |
|
and et cetera |
et cetera |
|
any and all |
all |
|
at about |
about |
|
basic essentials or basic fundamentals |
basics, essentials, fundamentals |
|
both together |
together |
|
cancel out |
cancel |
|
check into |
check |
|
close proximity |
near |
|
combine into one |
combine |
|
complete stop |
stop |
|
completely full |
full |
|
consensus of opinion |
consensus |
|
continue on |
continue |
|
cooperate together |
cooperate |
|
current status |
status |
|
customary practice |
practice |
|
desirable benefits |
benefits |
|
each and every |
each or every |
|
end result |
result |
|
enter into |
enter |
|
exactly equal |
equal |
|
final outcome |
outcome |
|
first and foremost |
first |
|
first priority |
priority |
|
free gift |
gift |
|
future projections |
projections |
|
goals and objectives |
goals |
|
group meeting |
meeting |
|
honest truth |
truth |
|
joined together |
joined |
|
new innovation |
innovation |
|
no doubt but |
no doubt |
|
one and the same |
the same |
|
outside of |
outside |
|
over with |
over |
|
past experience |
experience |
|
past history |
history |
|
personal opinion |
opinion |
|
point in time |
time |
|
range all the way from |
range from |
|
the reason is because |
the reason is or because |
|
reduce down |
reduce |
|
refer back to |
refer to |
|
repeat again |
repeat |
|
resume again |
resume |
|
small/large in size |
small/large |
|
totally empty |
empty |
|
this particular instance |
this instance |
|
3 a.m. in the morning; 3 p.m. in the afternoon |
3 a.m., 3 p.m. |
|
whether or not |
whether |
|
young in age |
young |
The third key to being clear and concise is using short sentences and paragraphs. Try to keep sentences to between 20 and 25 words. Or simply break up sentences that extend more than two lines. In general, no paragraph should include more than one or two ideas, and a paragraph of more than six sentences or 10 to 12 lines is almost always too long. When in doubt, split paragraphs in two at logical breaking points. The same goes for sentences.
You don’t want your writing to sound stilted. Varying sentence length and structure can help prevent this. Read your writing out loud to make sure it sounds natural.
Some people think using complex language makes them appear intelligent; in reality, it only obscures their point and makes them look pretentious. Effective writers use simple words such as start instead of commence, help instead of assist, and end rather than terminate.
Here are some unnecessarily large words and their replacements:
|
Replace: |
With: |
|
abbreviate |
shorten |
|
advise |
tell |
|
ascertain |
find out |
|
assist |
help |
|
commence |
start |
|
conceptualize |
conceive |
|
conjecture |
guess |
|
demonstrate |
show |
|
duplicate |
copy |
|
expedite |
speed |
|
facilitate |
help |
|
functionality |
features, functions, capabilities |
|
indicate |
say, show |
|
initiate |
begin |
|
nevertheless |
but, even so |
|
obtain |
get |
|
optimum |
best |
|
orientate |
orient |
|
receive |
get |
|
terminate |
end, fire |
|
utilize |
use |
Here are some phrases that were once commonplace, but now appear stiff and affected. Avoid or eliminate them:
|
beg to inform |
in due course of time |
|
in receipt of |
it has been deemed necessary |
|
it has been demonstrated that |
it has been shown that |
|
it is found that |
it is recognized that |
|
it is the intention of this writer to |
it is worthy of note |
|
it may be seen that |
it must be remembered that |
|
permit me to say |
please be advised that |
|
pursuant to |
what is known as |
Also avoid clichés such as:
|
back to square one |
back to basics |
|
ballpark figure |
beyond the shadow of a doubt |
|
first and foremost |
hit the nail on the head |
|
last but not least |
state of the art |
|
take the ball and run with it |
under review |
Finally, good writers also choose concrete words and specific examples over abstract, vague language. A watch that allows you to send email is a much clearer description than an IP- enabled wristwatch. One trick is to write the way you talk. If something doesn’t sound right when you read it out loud, change it.
Jargon is vocabulary that is specific to an industry or group of people. Because specialized language and technical terms can be confusing, it’s best to avoid them, even for the savviest of audiences. Try this as a guideline: Use jargon only if you are completely confident that nearly every one of your readers – say, nine out of ten – will understand it.
In addition, certain words and phrases come in and out of fashion. Because not everyone will understand them, and they might mean different things to different people, try to avoid them. Faddish words and phrases include:
|
actionable items |
bottom line (as noun or verb) |
|
cutting edge |
deliverables |
|
dialogue (as a verb) |
hands on |
|
interface (as a verb) |
proactive |
|
repurpose |
skill set |
Don’t use wishy-washy language because you don’t know exactly what you want to say or because you fear people will disagree with you.
The following words and phrases are red flags that you are hedging:
|
practically |
Pretty |
|
probably |
Rather |
|
seemingly |
Somewhat |
|
very |
Virtually |
|
as I recall |
as I understand it |
|
for all intents and purposes |
I imagine |
|
I would guess that |
in some cases |
|
is considered to be |
it is my observation that |
|
it is my opinion that |
for the most part |
may or may not be my best guess is that to the best of my recollection under the circumstances
In a sentence in the active voice, the subject performs the action. In a sentence in the passive voice, the subject receives the action.
Active voice: We paid close attention to the consumers’ comments.
Passive voice: Close attention was paid to the consumers’ comments.
Sentences in the passive voice tend to be duller, longer, and harder to understand than those in the active voice. They use forms of the helping verb to be (is, was, were, has been, have been, shall be, will be, shall have been, will have been) and phrases beginning with by. Active voice, in contrast, makes writing more energetic and forceful. I used the active voice to write this book sounds better than The active voice was used by me in writing this book.
If you can’t figure out how to put an idea into active voice, figure out who or what is doing the action and make that the subject of the sentence. To identify sentences in passive voice, look for those helping verbs and phrases beginning with by.
There is one instance in which you might want to use passive voice on purpose: when you are trying to de-emphasize the subject. If you’d like to highlight something other than the subject – the action, for example – passive voice can be a good choice:
He was born on January 3, 1972.
The employees were laid off during the third quarter.
In all other cases, avoid passive voice.
Help your reader by providing signals and guideposts. Transitional words and phrases (such as and, furthermore, even so, and therefore) work to connect your thoughts and indicate what’s to come. Another way to create transitions is to repeat a word or a phrase from the preceding paragraph.
When a paragraph or section contains several different points, numbering them (first, second, etc.) makes them clearer. Headers, lists, and bullets also help organize your thoughts for the reader.
Finally, make your reader’s job easier by following the principle of parallel construction. Parallel construction means beginning each item in a list with the same part of speech (the art of advertising, the science of accounting, and the mystery of marketing – each item begins with a noun). This helps alert readers to the similarities or connections between things. If you introduce words or phrases with a preposition, include the preposition either only with the first item or with each of the items.
Parallel: This book is for investors, managers, salespeople, and executives.
Parallel: This book is for investors, for managers, for salespeople, and for executives.
Not parallel: This book is for investors, managers, salespeople, and for executives.
It also helps to put related words together:
Confusing: Investors in the 1930s hurt by the crash acted cautiously.
Better: Investors hurt by the crash in the 1930s acted cautiously.
This kind of positioning makes sentences easier to understand.
Use firm endings; don’t go on and on and weaken your point. Use direct, strong statements. End by restating your major points or the benefits of following your recommendations.
If possible, let your writing sit overnight. At least, an hour or two away from the document will allow you to approach it with a fresh eye and to edit more effectively.
Separate editing from writing. With writing, it’s best to get your thoughts out rather than agonize over every detail.
Pronouns must agree with the word they refer to in person, number, and gender. This is known as pronoun- antecedent agreement.
Incorrect: Everyone wanted to cash in their stock options.
Correct: Everyone wanted to cash in his or her stock options.
(Everyone is singular; therefore, the pronouns that refer to it must be singular as well.)
Similarly, verbs must agree with the subject of the sentence. (If the subject is singular, the verb must be singular; if the subject is plural, the verb must be plural.) This is known as subject-verb agreement. Do not fall into the trap of making the verb agree with the noun closest to it if that noun is not the subject.
Incorrect: A portion of our efforts are devoted to marketing.
Correct: A portion of our efforts is devoted to marketing. (Portion, not efforts, which is the object of the prepositional phrase beginning with of, is the subject of the sentence. Portion is singular, so the verb must be singular.)
See also subject/verb agreement.
Use the article an when the word that follows starts with a vowel sound. Pay attention not to whether the first letter is actually a vowel or consonant, but what it sounds like:
an option
an hourly wage
But: a used book (because the u sounds like a y)
And can be used to join words, phrases, and clauses.
To join words: He is a pompous and arrogant man. To join phrases: We look for employees with outgoing personalities, the ability to solve problems quickly, and experience in the service industry.
To join clauses: I like to dance, he likes to cook, and she likes to paint.
When using and to join two independent clauses, make sure the two clauses are equal in importance. Do not use and simply to tack on information at the end of a sentence or if one idea is dependent on another. (In the latter case, use a more specific word, such as because or so.)
Not good: The shareholders’ meeting was in Houston,
Texas, and many people attended. Better: The shareholders’ meeting, which many people attended, was in Houston, Texas.
Better: The shareholders’ meeting was in Houston, Texas. Many people attended.
Not good: His plane was late, and he missed the meeting. Better: His plane was late, so he missed the meeting.
Use an apostrophe:
When indicating possession: a person’s signature, people’s signatures; the boy’s toy, the boys’ toys.
When a singular common noun ends in s, add an ’s (princess’s, boss’s) unless the word that follows also begins with s (the boss’ son). For singular proper names ending in s, use an apostrophe only (Paris’ food, Jesus’ example).
For compound words, add apostrophe or ’s to the word closest to the object possessed (the vice president’s opinion).
When indicating omitted letters or numerals: can’t, ’90s.
When an apostrophe appears in front of a number, it should face this way: ’
Do not use an apostrophe:
When forming the plural of numbers or decades: 1870s, 1990s; 20s, 30s, 40s, etc.
When forming the plural of letters or abbreviations: Ds, Fs, VIPs.
Contrary to popular belief, it is acceptable to use but at the beginning of a sentence. However, as with any other sentence formation, be careful not to overuse.
Capitalize the first word of a sentence. This rule holds true when a sentence appears within a sentence (quoted material) or when a complete sentence follows a colon.
I couldn’t believe it when she said, “Take the rest of the day off.”
Later, I found out why she gave us a vacation day: She didn’t want us around while she was firing people.
Capitalize titles only when they precede a person’s specific name:
We heard President Bush speak.
We heard the president speak.
Capitalize the official names of governments, companies, and organizations. Do not capitalize common nouns such as division, committee, manager, department, and director. However, it’s better to follow the conventions of your company and overcapitalize than to be a stickler about this.
Capitalize the trademarked names of products, but not the products themselves.
Band-Aid, bandage
Kleenex, tissue
Xerox, photocopy
Capitalize the words north, south, east, and west only when they designate a well-known region (the Midwest, Southern California). Do not capitalize them when they indicate direction. (The storm is moving north.) Do not capitalize seasons of the year: spring, autumn, winter, summer.
Capitalize titles of books, articles, plays, and films. Do not capitalize articles, conjunctions, or short prepositions in titles (A Man for All Seasons) unless they begin or end the title (In the Bedroom). Capitalize prepositions that contain more than four letters (A River Runs Through It).
Use a colon:
To introduce a list of items. (This report is missing several sections: a table of contents, an introduction, and a conclusion.)
To introduce an explanation. (I’m not sure I agree with his conclusion: His logic seems flawed.)
To heighten the impact of the word or words that follow.
(The cause of her illness was simple: malnutrition.)
After the salutation of a business letter. (Dear Mr. Smith:)
To separate elements of time (hours and minutes, minutes and seconds). (The meeting starts at 3:30. Her official time for the race was 6:02:27.)
Do not place a colon between a verb and its objects or between a preposition and its objects.
Incorrect: Please address the letter to: the client, the CEO, and the lawyers. Correct: Please address the letter to the client, the CEO, and the lawyers.
Incorrect: Our strongest departments are: accounting, marketing, and human resources.
Correct: Our strongest departments are accounting, marketing, and human resources.
See also quotation marks for placement with quotes.
Place a comma:
Between two or more adjectives that modify a noun.
A dark, conservative suit is best for a job interview.
Between items in a series. The comma before the and or or in a series is now considered optional, but I include it to avoid confusion. Whether or not you choose to include this serial comma, be consistent throughout your document.
The flag is red, white, and blue.
To set off clauses that would not change the meaning of their subject if they were left out (“nonessential clauses”). If the words are essential to the meaning of the subject, do not enclose them in commas.
The conference room, which is comfortable but elegant, can hold 30 people.
Before a conjunction separating two independent clauses. However, if the clauses are extremely short, no comma is necessary.
She writes the documents within three to four weeks, and I edit them within a few days.
She writes and I edit.
To separate a direct quote from the rest of the sentence.
“This report is pathetic,” he yelled.
Between parts of dates and place names.
The agreement was signed on November 6, 2002, but didn’t take effect until a month later.
She will retire to Palm Beach, Florida, when she turns 70.
Between names and titles or degrees that follow.
Thomas Matthews, Jr.
Angela Adams, M.D.
See also quotation marks for placement with quotes.
Do not connect two individual sentences (known as independent clauses), each with its own subject and verb, by a comma. Instead, separate them with a semicolon or a period. If the clauses are short, you can also join them with a conjunction.
Incorrect: Yesterday’s meeting was there, today’s meeting is here.
Correct: Yesterday’s meeting was there; today’s meeting is here.
Correct: Yesterday’s meeting was there. Today’s meeting is here.
Correct: Yesterday’s meeting was there, while today’s meeting is here.
See hyphen.
Modifiers are words or phrases that define or alter the meaning of something. Modifiers are dangling when they don’t modify the subject of the sentence.
Incorrect: Believing the product to be faulty, it was recalled. (Who believes the product to be faulty?)
Correct: Believing the product to be faulty, the company recalled it. (The company believes the product to be faulty.)
The dash is used to interrupt or highlight an idea. (My father – an accomplished golfer in his own right – never beat my mother in golf.) Used most often in informal contexts, the dash should be used sparingly in business writing.
If you must use a dash and can’t create one with the “function” option on your computer, use two hyphens with a space on either side ( -- ).
Either goes with or; neither goes with nor.
Correct: Neither the radio nor the television is working. Correct: I wish either the radio or the television were working.
Incorrect: Neither the radio or the television is working.
Ellipses indicate that a word, phrase, sentence, or paragraph has been omitted. They are usually used in quoted material. Ellipses can appear at the beginning, middle, or end of a sentence.
The correct way to format ellipses is to use three dots with a space on either side. When deleted words come at the end of a sentence, use a fourth dot as the period.
Do not use ellipses for any other reason than to show omission.
The exclamation point is used to show extreme emotion. Use only rarely; a period will almost always suffice.
See also quotation marks for placement with quotes.
A sentence is a group of words with a subject and a verb that form a complete thought. A sentence fragment is a group of words that does not form a complete thought.
Incorrect: The stenographer typed. As fast as he could. (As fast as he could is not a complete sentence.)
Correct: The stenographer typed as fast as he could.
Eliminate fragments from your writing.
Use hyphens when you combine two or more words to form an adjective or to create a new word or modifying phrase. Here’s a good rule of thumb: If the reader might otherwise be confused, use a hyphen.
carry-on luggage
day-by-day propositions
the first-time traveler
the first time-traveler
If one of the words in a modifier is an adverb ending in -ly, do not use a hyphen.
She was fancily dressed.
When a series of modifiers all end with the same word, the word needs only to appear at the end of the series.
We manufacture small-, large- and mid-size cars.
Italicize names of books, newspapers, magazines, periodicals, movies, and TV shows. Use quotation marks for titles of chapters, articles, reports, poems, songs, and musical works. Exception: The titles of long musical works and poems (for example, Paradise Lost) are italicized.
Italics may also be used to show emphasis. Use them sparingly for this purpose, however.
Parallel construction means beginning each item in a list with the same part of speech (the art of advertising, the science of accounting, and the mystery of marketing – each item begins with a noun). This helps alert readers to the similarities or connections between things. If you introduce words or phrases with a preposition, either include the preposition only with the first item or with each of the items.
Parallel: This book is for investors, managers, salespeople, and executives.
Parallel: This book is for investors, for managers, for salespeople, and for executives.
Not parallel: This book is for investors, managers, salespeople, and for executives.
Parentheses are traditionally used to enclose explanatory material that’s tangential to the main idea. They’re also used to introduce an acronym or an abbreviation.
Try to limit the first use of parentheses: When you’re tempted to use parentheses to enclose a tangential idea, consider how important the idea is. If it’s important enough to be in the document, it probably doesn’t belong in parentheses. If it’s not important, it probably doesn’t belong in the document.
Punctuation and parentheses: Put a period inside the closing parenthesis if the statement inside is a complete sentence. Otherwise, punctuate the sentence as if the parentheses did not exist.
Ice cream is my favorite dessert. (And chocolate is my favorite flavor.)
Ice cream is my favorite dessert (especially chocolate).
Note: Do not follow the written version of a number with a numeral in parentheses.
Incorrect: Enclosed are three (3) documents.
Use a period:
At the end of a sentence.
In certain abbreviations: a.m., p.m., B.A., M.A., Ph.D., M.D., Jr. Esq., Ms., Mrs., Mr., Bros., Co., Inc., U.S.A. If an abbreviation ends a sentence, no additional period is needed.
At age 45, she went back to school to earn her Ph.D.
See also quotation marks for placement with quotes.
See point of view.
When writing a document, adopt a point of view: I or we (first person); you (second person); or he, she, it, and they (third person). In documents on company stationery, we usually indicates the view of the company, while I indicates personal opinion.
Any of the three points of view is acceptable; just make sure not to shift person in the middle of a sentence or document.
Are prepositions something you can end a sentence with? Yes. Most grammarians now disregard the old rule about not ending sentences with prepositions. It’s better to end a sentence with a preposition than write an awkward, stilted statement.
Awkward: This is the manual with which the computer came.
Better: This is the manual the computer came with.
Pronouns are substitutes for nouns (or other pronouns). The key in understanding how to use pronouns is knowing whether they are subjects or objects in their sentences. When the pronoun is part of the subject of a sentence, use a nominative pronoun (see below). When the pronoun is part of the object in a sentence – the thing acted upon – or the object of a preposition, use the objective case.
|
Nominative |
Objective |
|
I/we |
Me/us |
|
You |
You |
|
He/she/it |
Him/her/it |
|
They |
Them |
A pronoun that follows a preposition is the object of that preposition and should therefore be in the objective case.
Correct: It was I who wrote the report.
Incorrect: It was me who wrote the report.
Correct: Let’s keep this between you and me.
Incorrect: Let’s keep this between you and I.
Another point about pronouns: Be clear about which noun they’re replacing.
Ambiguous: After Rick spoke to the man, he felt better.
(Who felt better? Rick or the man?)
Clear: After speaking with the man, Rick felt better.
Clear: After Rick spoke with the man, Rick felt better. (It’s better to repeat the noun and sound repetitive than to be unclear.)
One way to reduce confusion is to place the pronoun as close as possible to the noun it is replacing.
The main function of quotation marks is to signal the beginning and end of a direct quote: “Tell my husband I’ll call him back,” the CEO said to her secretary. Also use quotation marks:
Around the titles of articles, stories, speeches, and chapters and other parts of a larger printed work
When introducing a new term (We’re calling our new toy a “zigley.”)
Punctuating with quotation marks: Many people find the question of whether to place periods and other punctuation inside or outside quotation marks confusing. The rules are simple:
Periods and commas go inside the final quotation mark.
Semicolons and colons go outside the final quotation mark.
Question marks and exclamation points go inside the final quotation mark when they are part of the quoted material; they go outside the quotation mark when they are not.
Incorrect: After the sales pitch he asked, “So how much will this really cost us”?
Correct: After the sales pitch he asked, “So how much will this really cost us?”
Quotes within quotes: Use single quotation marks to note quotations within quotations.
The manager said, “During our presentation, I overheard the client say, ‘I’m impressed.’”
Do not use quotation marks to indicate that you are being sarcastic or using a word loosely.
Incorrect: She thought the top made her look “with it.”
A run-on sentence is two or more sentences without punctuation separating them.
The economy is good however the market for our product is poor.
Ways to fix run-on sentences include:
Dividing them into separate sentences.
The economy is good. However, the market for our product is poor.
Joining them with a comma and a conjunction.
The economy is good, but the market for our product is poor.
Joining them with a semicolon.
The economy is good; however, the market for our product is poor.
The semicolon has two main uses:
To connect two closely related sentences that are not joined by a conjunction.
Red is my favorite color; half my wardrobe is red.
To separate items on a list when the items are long, complex, or have commas within them.
I will need the following: two highlighters, one yellow and one green; three pencils; poster board, preferably the thick kind; and a large roll of masking tape.
See also quotation marks for placement with quotes.
The comma before the and or or in a series is now considered optional, but I include it to avoid confusion. Whether or not you choose to include this serial comma, be consistent throughout your document. See also comma.
Splitting infinitives is no longer a cardinal sin of grammar. Splitting an infinitive is preferable to creating an awkward-sounding sentence or leaving the meaning unclear. Most sentences, however, will sound natural without splitting infinitives.
Unclear: It was difficult to understand actually what she was saying. (To actually understand, or what she was actually saying?)
Better: It was difficult to actually understand what she was saying.
Unnecessary split: To effectively communicate, you must be a competent writer.
Better: To communicate effectively, you must be a competent writer.
Singular subjects take singular verbs. Plural subjects take plural verbs.
This rule seems simple enough. Nonetheless, placing a singular noun with a plural verb is a common grammar mistake. Part of the problem is that many singular nouns seem as if they are plural: Group, staff, board committee, and majority are singular (and take singular verbs), for example.
Incorrect: The staff are on vacation.
Correct: The staff is on vacation.
Other nouns that are singular but often used mistakenly with plural verb forms include each, everybody, everyone, anybody, somebody, someone, no one, either, and neither. Many of these words incorporate the word one or body, which serves as a reminder that they refer to one person or thing.
Another common mistake is matching the verb with the word closest to it, rather than the actual subject of the sentence.
Incorrect: The group of accountants are meeting at the hotel. (Of accountants is a prepositional phrase; group, a singular noun, is the subject of the sentence.)
Correct: The group is meeting at the hotel.
Incorrect: The majority [of people] are going to vote for a pay raise.
Correct: The majority is going to vote for a pay raise. (If you mentally delete the prepositional phrase of people, it’s easier to see that the subject of the sentence is majority, which is singular.)
If two singular parts of a subject are connected by and, the subject is plural and takes a plural verb.
Eating and drinking are two of my favorite pastimes.
When two singular subjects are joined by or, the verb is singular.
Bob or Joyce is taking pledges today.
When one part of a subject is singular and the other is plural and they are joined by or, the verb should agree with the part of the subject closest to it.
John or his friends are going to the mall.
Either John’s friends or John is representing the group.
When subjects connected by and are commonly thought of as one item, the verb is singular.
Bacon and eggs is my favorite breakfast.
See also agreement.
The phrase If I were you includes a subjunctive verb. Knowing the verb is subjunctive is not important, but it is important to know when to use was and when to use were.
Use were when an if clause states a situation that is impossible, extremely unlikely, or simply untrue. Use was in all other cases.
If I were you, I would make that phone call. (It is impossible for me to be you.)
If I was asked, I’d go with you. (It is possible that I’ll be asked.)
Italicize names of books, newspapers, magazines, periodicals, movies, and TV shows. Use quotation marks for titles of chapters, articles, reports, poems, songs, and musical works. Do not capitalize articles and conjunctions of three words or less (The Times of London).
Capitalize titles only when they precede a person’s name.
President Bush’s address
the president’s address
Use abbreviations sparingly, unless you are certain the reader knows what they stand for.
Some words, however, are almost always abbreviated. They include a.m., p.m., B.C., A.D., Mr., Mrs., Ms., and Dr. When they follow a person’s name, Jr. and Sr. are also abbreviated.
Use an ampersand (&) in place of and and abbreviate the words Brothers (Bros.), Company (Co.), Corporation (Corp.), and Incorporated (Inc.) when they are part of a company’s formal name. When not used as part of a name, spell out these words.
Do not abbreviate months, days of the week, or the words street, avenue, road, and boulevard. Do not abbreviate the names of states except in postal addresses.
Like abbreviations, acronyms should be used sparingly, unless you are certain the reader knows what they stand for. Write out a word the first time you use it and note its acronym in parentheses. From then on, you may use the acronym alone.
Use numerals when indicating age, even if the age is under ten. This is an exception to the rule about when to use numerals and words on Page 70.
Our fleet of airplanes is 7 years old.
Hyphenate ages when they are used as adjectives or replacements for nouns; otherwise, no hyphen is necessary.
I have a 6-year-old daughter.
My daughter is 6 years old. This toy is designed for 6-year-olds.
Do not use an apostrophe in the following constructions: 20s, 30s, 40s, etc.
Most of the middle managers are in their 30s.
Lowercase with periods. Note that 6 p.m. in the evening is redundant. The use of a.m. or p.m. already indicates time of day.
Do not use in place of and unless the ampersand is part of an organization’s formal name.
Confusing to the reader; avoid. Also avoid either/or, he/she, and similar expressions with slashes.
Do not use apostrophes when writing the plural of an abbreviation. Do not use apostrophes in the following constructions: 1870s, 1990s; 20s, 30s, 40s, etc.
Most of the middle managers are in their 30s.
See also apostrophe in Chapter 2.
Do not capitalize unless the word is part of an organization’s full, official name.
I’ll have to discuss your proposal with the board before making a decision.
We’re presenting our proposal to the Cincinnati Board of Trade tomorrow.
Do not capitalize in generic uses. Capitalize in internal correspondence if that is the company’s custom. See also titles.
There is no one correct way to punctuate bulleted items. If a bulleted item is a complete sentence, capitalize the first letter and end with the appropriate end punctuation (period, question mark). If the item is not a complete sentence, you may end with a period, comma, semicolon, or nothing at all – but be consistent. It’s still a good idea to capitalize the first word in each bullet.
Use numerals and spell out the word cents (8 cents, 60 cents). This is an exception to the rule about when to use words and when to use numerals on Page 70.
Hyphenate when used with another word to form an adjective. Do not hyphenate when used as a noun.
The Internet is a 20th-century phenomenon.
People started using the Internet in the 20th century.
Note that the century designation does not correspond with a century’s years: The 20th century began in 1900, not 2000.
Capitalize only as a formal title that appears before a person’s name: company Chairman Bill Gates. Do not capitalize when referring to a less formal, temporary position: chairperson of the improvement committee Joe Smith.
Can be written as words or numerals. (Chapter 3 and Chapter Three are both correct.)
Capitalize only when part of an official name or nickname; otherwise, lowercase: New York City; the city of Los Angeles; Chicago, the Windy City.
If a business ends its proper name with Company or Companies, abbreviate as Co. or Cos. (Possessive: Co.’s and Cos.’) If either word is used alone, do not abbreviate.
See Standard & Poor’s Register of Corporations or consult the company itself for a company’s exact name. Put a comma before Inc. or Ltd. And a comma after Inc. or Ltd. If they do not end the sentence.
Abbreviate as Corp. when used at the end of an organization’s formal name. Do not abbreviate when used alone.
Data is technically the plural form of the word datum. However, it has become acceptable to use data with a singular verb in all but the most formal contexts.
Formal: The data show we are heading in the right direction.
Informal: The data shows we are heading in the right direction.
Punctuate dates as follows: September 4, 1973. When a complete date appears in the middle of a sentence, it is followed by a comma. When only a month and year appear, no comma is necessary.
The author was born on September 4, 1973, in
Washington, D.C.
September 1973 was hot and humid in Washington, D.C.
International correspondence: Many countries other than the United States express dates as follows: 4 September 1973, and 4/9/73. Keep this in mind when using numerical forms for dates (9/4/73 in the United States), so the month and day are not confused.
One word, no hyphen. Same holds true for weeklong, monthlong, and yearlong.
Write as follows: 1990s, ’90s, mid-1990s. Use apostrophe when writing ’90s because numbers have been omitted (note direction of apostrophe: ’ and not ‘). Do not use apostrophe when writing 1990s because no numbers have been omitted. See apostrophe Page 32.
Capitalize only as a formal title that appears before a person’s name: FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover.
Follow the rules for numbers, Page 70. Write out one through ten; use numerals for numbers over ten.
The plant is five miles away.
The satellite office is 12 miles south of here.
Use numerals when expressing dollar amounts ($2, $3,000). For amounts of $1 million or more, use numerals up to two decimals ($3.5 million). Do not hyphenate numerals with the words million, billion, etc. ($540 million deficit, not $540-million deficit).
Use with a singular verb.
Each of the automobiles was a different color.
Each of you is exceptionally qualified.
Redundant. Use each or every.
Either should be used with or; neither should be used with nor. The verb should agree with the subject that is closer to it.
Either Jack or Jill is going to the meeting
Neither the CEO nor the trustees are going to the meeting.
Neither the trustees nor the CEO is going to the meeting.
Experts disagree on whether to use a hyphen. Either follow company convention or choose one way and be consistent in all uses. Special note for international correspondence: In both French and German, email, without the hyphen, means enamel or glaze.
Use firm when referring to a business partnership. Do not use when referring to an incorporated business; use corporation or company instead.
Do not hyphenate when used as a noun. (The company did well during the first quarter.) Hyphenate when used as an adjective. (The first-quarter results were excellent.)
Spell out and hyphenate amounts less than 1 (four- fifths). Express as numerals when the amount is more than 1 (6 ½ inches). Use numerals for amounts larger than one (and convert to decimals when possible, but try to avoid mixing fractions and decimals in the same document).
Hyphenate when used as an adjective; do not hyphenate when used as a noun.
The fund-raising event is this evening at 8.
Skillful fund raising is key to an organization’s success.
Make every effort to ensure your language is gender-neutral, particularly when referring to professions. Here are some traditional names of occupations that are now considered sexist and their suggested replacements.
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Replace: |
With: |
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anchorman |
anchor |
|
chairman |
chairperson, chair |
|
fireman |
firefighter |
|
foreman |
supervisor |
|
housewife |
homemaker |
|
man (verb) |
staff, operate |
|
mankind |
humankind, humanity |
|
mailman |
mail carrier |
|
policeman |
police officer |
|
repairman |
service technician |
|
salesman |
salesperson |
|
spokesman |
spokesperson |
|
stewardess |
flight attendant |
See also his, her.
Does not need to be used with the word of. Half the group and half of the group are both correct.
Singular noun that takes a singular verb. The company’s headquarters is in Columbus, Ohio.
Use numerals and spell out words such as yards, feet, and inches. Hyphenate only when used as adjectives before nouns.
He is a 6-foot-7-inch basketball player.
He is 6 feet 7 inches tall.
Do not use he, him, or his to represent both sexes. She or he, him or her, and his or her is acceptable but cumbersome.
There are several ways to avoid biased language without sounding awkward, including making the pronoun plural, using the pronoun you, using the pronoun we, using an article (a, an, the), using passive voice, and taking the pronoun out altogether.
Avoid: A salesperson must know his client well.
Avoid: A salesperson must know his or her client well.
Better: As a salesperson, you must know your client well.
Better: Salespeople must know their clients well.
Better: A salesperson must know the client well.
Better: As salespeople, we must know our clients well.
Better: Clients must be well known by their salespeople.
Another option is to alternate the use of his and her throughout a document, using the masculine pronoun in one instance and the feminine pronoun in the next.
Abbreviate and capitalize as Inc. when part of a formal company name. Set off by commas: Widget Makers, Inc.
Italicize names of books, newspapers, magazines, periodicals, movies, and TV shows. Use quotation marks for titles of chapters, articles, reports, poems, songs, and musical works. Exception: The titles of long musical works and poems (e.g., Paradise Lost) are italicized.
Italics may also be used to show emphasis. Use them sparingly for this purpose, however.
Italicize foreign words or phrases that have not become fully accepted as part of the English language. (Her joie de vivre motivated the entire committee. His quid pro quo was unacceptable.) Some foreign words have become so ingrained in the English language that they no longer need to be italicized (etc., bon voyage).
Abbreviate as Jr. and Sr. when following a person’s name. Set off by a comma: John J. Beatty, Jr.
Hyphenate when used as an adjective; do not hyphenate when used as a noun. Same rule applies to long-term vs. long term.
His long-distance bill was high this month.
They ran the long distance without stopping.
Long-term care is expensive.
We’re in the stock market for the long term.
Long time vs. longtime Long time is a noun; longtime is an adjective.
We haven’t seen our friends in a long time.
Our longtime friends will visit us next weekend.
Capitalize and place in italics. Lowercase the word magazine unless it is part of the publication’s official title.
May be abbreviated as M.S. and M.A. Master’s or master’s degree in x also acceptable.
Commonly abbreviated as M.B.A or MBA. Note: It is becoming more acceptable to eliminate the periods in degrees; it certainly looks less cluttered in a biography, for instance, when the person has several degrees.